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Reading Test 48
The Dams That Changed Australia
Section A
The Snowy Mountains Scheme was created and established because interior Australia has been plagued by a dry spell from the time of its first colonization in 1778 till now. Before the Snowy Scheme, a considerable percentage of the snowfields on Australia’s highest mountains (the Snowy Mountains) melted into the Snowy River. As a result, rather than flowing into the country’s arid areas, where residents desperately need it, snowy water flows directly into the sea. In 1840, the Polish geologist and explorer, Strzelecki, realized this and addressed how the country could not grow without an appropriate and sufficient supply of water. Agriculture fertilization would have to be reduced from its current path in order for agriculture to grow.
Prior to the Federation in 1901, Australia was a collection of colonies, each of which was concerned with safeguarding its own interests. Following the union, all states held their water rights, determining which way the river would flow. The Deadlocked Premiers’ Conference was formed in 1947 as a result of disagreements between New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia. Despite the ensuing debate, the Snowy Mountains water generated Power Act was passed by the Federal Parliament barely two years later, on July 7. The project got underway on October 17, shortly after the bill was enacted.
The major goal of the program’s concept was to deal with water for energy and divert it back to the dry irrigation regions in the country’s interior. Mountains had to be dug across hundreds of kilometres to make tunnels, and in nineteen years, sixteen spectacular dams and several water generated power plants were built. The Guthega power plant, for example, was permitted in 1954, and the latest completed one was Tumul II.
Section B
The major goal of the snowy water programme was to permanently alter Australia’s situation. The key difference in this programme was the inclusion of people from other nations. When the world was still reeling from the tragedy of World War II (1939–1945), the Australian government needed a large number of people to labor in the Snowy Mountains. The government recruited labor from other countries, and between 60,000 and 100,000 people worked on this project from other countries.
Workers on the project came from Italy, Yugoslavia, and Germany, as well as from megacities like Budapest, Paris, and Vienna, as well as from tiny villages. These European laborers were living in a country that was at a defining period in the globe that was radically different from their own, which battled with one another throughout the war and had unique cultures. They arrived in an area that provided both great difficulties and a primitive lifestyle because they were young guys. Some individuals were fortunate enough to be put in camps, but many others lived in tents in the early days of the project. There was no luxury to living there, and there was also no female population. In addition, the food given was inadequate.
Section C
Many workers were advised to take English lessons after work hours since they could not speak English effectively. When the situation became untenable, they created sign language as a vital means of communication with one another. At that time, the signals for labor were unusual. A thumb near the lips, for example, suggested water but did not specify whether the water was required for the drill the guy was using or for a drink.
As a result, only a small number of women worked on the project and those that were hired mainly worked from home. As a result, the references used in the snowy area were precise. Members of the rural women’s group taught English courses throughout the neighborhood. The Australian Broadcasting Commission provided regular broadcasts to aid new learners and other English instruction.
Section D
There were many fewer serious societal issues than was previously thought possible. Workers performed double shifts and put in long hours in order to settle down in Australia or return home with a fair amount of money. After recalling the difficulty they had gone through in the past during the reunion in 1999, most of the workers became prudent as a result of their joy. Working on the project not only delighted the employees but also their spouses and mothers, indicating that they had experienced many aspects of the concept.
The children of these couples were educated in Happy Jack, a town noted for having a large number of schools in Australia and a high birth rate in comparison to other cities in Australia. At one point in Happy Jack, thirty infants were born to eighty households. Older children attended school in Cooma, the next big town.
Section E
It was unclear if the project would be continued. The cost of constructing power plants under the earth’s crust would now be too expensive, and our present ecological predicament would need a new approach to river treatment. Many hydroelectricity plans, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority, outperformed the Snowy Mountain system, which was followed by others. The Snowy Mountain Scheme is also the only water generated project in the world that is entirely funded by the sale of energy.
The project is not only a pillar for individuals from all over the globe who have dared to return to their former way of life, but it is also a magnificent technical marvel. Some are working and living in Australia, while others have retired there and returned to their home countries. Everyone has done their best in a constantly evolving Australian society.
The Dams That Changed Australia IELTS Reading Questions
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Power from the Earth
A.
Geothermal power refers to the generation of electrical power by making use of heat sources found well below the earth’s surface. As is well-known, if a hole were to be drilled deep into the earth, extremely hot, molten rock would soon be encountered. At depths of 30 to 50 km, temperatures exceeding 1000 degrees Celsius prevail. Obviously, accessing such temperatures would provide a wonderful source for geothermal power. The problem is, such depths are too difficult to access: drilling down some 30 or more kilometres is simply too costly with today’s technology.
B.
Fortunately, sufficiently hot temperatures are available at considerably shallower depths. In certain areas, where the earth’s surface has been altered over time—through, for example, volcanic activity—temperatures exceeding 300 degrees Celsius can be found at depths of a mere 1 to 3 km, which can be feasibly accessed. These particular areas are potentially ideal for the generation of electricity through geothermal means.
C.
It is possible to explain geothermal power generation as a steam power system that utilises the earth itself as a boiler. When water is sent down to the depths of 1 to 3 km, it returns to the surface as steam and is capable of generating electricity. Electricity generated in this manner hardly produces any carbon dioxide or other waste materials. If the steam and hot water are routed back underground, the generation of electricity can be semi-permanent in nature.
D.
Furthermore, geothermal power can provide a stable supply of electricity unlike other natural energy sources such as solar power and wind power, which both rely heavily on weather conditions. Accordingly, the generation of electricity through geothermal power is four to five times more efficient than through solar power. As for wind power, geothermal power is some two times more cost effective. Only the generation of water generated power comes close—the cost of power production from each is about the same.
E.
Although geothermal power generation appears to be a most attractive option, development has been slow. The world’s first successful attempt at geothermal power generation was accomplished in Italy in 1904. Power generation in Japan first started at Beppu City. Since that time, countries as diverse as Iceland and New Zealand have joined the list of nations making use of this valuable source of energy. In the year 2000, Beppu City hosted the World Geothermal Congress, whose goal was to promote the adoption of geothermal energy production throughout the world.
F.
The international geothermal community at the World Geothermal Congress 2000 called upon the governments of nations to make strong commitments to the development of their indigenous geo-thermal resources for the benefit of their own people, humanity and the environment. However, several factors are still hindering the development of geothermal power generation. Firstly, it has a low density of energy which makes it unsuitable for large-scale production in which, for example, over 1,000,000 kilowatts need to be produced. Secondly, the cost is still high when compared to today’s most common sources of energy production: fossil fuels and atomic energy.
G.
A further consideration is the amount of risk involved in successfully setting up a new geothermal power production facility. The drilling that must extend 2,000 to 3,000 m below the surface must be accurate to within a matter of just a few metres one side or the other of the targeted location. To achieve this, extensive surveys, drilling expertise and time are needed. It is not uncommon for a project to encompass ten years from its planning stage to the start of operations. The extent of the risks involved is clear.
H.
Although it has long been considered a resource-poor nation, Japan, which is thought to have about 10% of the world’s geothermal resources, may well have considerable advantages for tapping into geothermal power. It does have one of the longest serving power stations using geothermal energy. The station, built in 1966, pointed the way to the future when the country was affected by the two global oil shocks in the 1970s. Now there are some 17 plants in operation throughout the country which are responsible for a total output of over 530,000 kilowatts. This figure, though impressive, accounts for a mere 0.4% of Japan’s total generation of electricity.
I.
Clearly then, further progress needs to be made in the development of geothermal energy. As long as costs remain high in comparison to other sources of energy, geothermal power will struggle to match the efficiency of existing power sources. Further research and innovation in the field, as well as government support and a sense of urgency, are needed to help propel geothermal energy towards its promising future.
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Are we managing to destroy science
1.
The government in the UK was concerned about the efficiency of research institutions and set up a Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) to consider what was being done in each university. The article which follows is a response to the imposition of the RAE. In the year ahead, the UK government is due to carry out the next Research Assessment Exercise (RAE). The goal of this regular five-yearly check-up of the university sector is easy to understand: to increase productivity within public sector research. But striving for such productivity can lead to unfortunate consequences. In the case of the RAE, one risk attached to this is the creation of an overly controlling management culture that threatens the future of imaginative science.
2.
Academic institutions are already preparing for the RAE with some anxiety—understandably so, for the financial consequences of failure are severe. Departments with a current rating of four or five (research is rated on a five point scale, with five the highest) must maintain their score or face a considerable loss of funding. Meanwhile, those with ratings of two or three are fighting for their survival. The pressures are forcing research management onto the defensive. Common strategies for increasing academic output include grading individual researchers every year according to RAE criteria, pressuring them to publish anything regardless of quality, diverting funds from key and expensive laboratory science into areas of study such as management, and even threatening to close departments. Another strategy being readily adopted is to remove scientists who appear to be less active in research and replace them with new, probably younger, staff.
3.
Although such measures may deliver results in the RAE, they are putting unsustainable pressure on academic staff. Particularly insidious is the pressure to publish. Put simply, RAE committees in the laboratory sciences must produce four excellent peer-reviewed publications per member of staff to meet the assessment criteria. Hence this is becoming a minimum requirement for existing members of staff, and a benchmark against which to measure new recruits. But prolific publication does not necessarily add up to good science. Indeed, one young researcher was told in an interview for a lectureship that, although your publications are excellent, unfortunately, there are not enough of them. You should not worry so much about the quality of your publications.
4.
In a recent letter to Nature, the publication records of ten senior academics in the area of molecular microbiology were analyzed. Each of these academics is now in very senior positions in universities or research institutes, with careers spanning a total of 262 years. All have achieved considerable status and respect within the UK and worldwide. However, their early publication records would preclude them from academic posts if the present criteria were applied. Although the quality of their work was clearly outstanding—they initiated novel and perhaps risky projects early in their careers, which have since been recognised as research of international importance—they generally produced fewer papers over the first ten years after completing their PhDs. Indeed, over this period, they have an average gap of 3–8 years without the publication or production of a cited paper. In one case there was a five-year gap. Although these enquiries were limited to a specific area of research, it seems that this model of career progression is widespread in all of the chemical and biological sciences.
5.
It seems that the atmosphere surrounding the RAE may be stifling talented young researchers or driving them out of science altogether. There urgently needs to be a more considered and careful nurturing of our young scientific talent. A new member of academic staff in the chemical or biological laboratory sciences surely needs a commitment to resources over a five- to ten-year period to establish their research. Senior academics managing this situation might be well advised to demand a long-term view from the government. Unfortunately, management seems to be pulling in the opposite direction.
Academics have to deal with more students than ever and the paperwork associated with the assessment of the quality of teaching is increasing. On top of that, the salary for university lecturers starts at only £32,665 (rising to £58,048). Tenure is rare, and most contracts are offered on a temporary contract basis. With the mean starting salary for new graduates now close to £36,000, it is surprising that anybody still wants a job in academia.
6.
It need not be like this. Dealings with the many senior research managers in the chemical and water industries at the QUESTOR Centre (Queen’s University Environmental Science and Technology Research Centre) provided some insight. The overall impression is that the private sector has a much more sensible and enlightened long-term view of research priorities. Why can universities not develop the same attitude? All organizations need managers, yet these managers will make sure they survive even when those they manage are lost. Research management in UK universities is in danger of evolving into such an overly controlled state that it will allow little time for careful thinking and teaching, and will undermine the development of imaginative young scientists.
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